diff --git a/lib/checks/navigation/region-after.js b/lib/checks/navigation/region-after.js
deleted file mode 100644
index c60b163cf3..0000000000
--- a/lib/checks/navigation/region-after.js
+++ /dev/null
@@ -1 +0,0 @@
-return [results[0]];
diff --git a/lib/checks/navigation/region.js b/lib/checks/navigation/region.js
index 0e886ec29b..2a829f5d7e 100644
--- a/lib/checks/navigation/region.js
+++ b/lib/checks/navigation/region.js
@@ -2,6 +2,11 @@ const { dom, aria } = axe.commons;
 const landmarkRoles = aria.getRolesByType('landmark');
 const implicitAriaLiveRoles = ['alert', 'log', 'status'];
 
+let regionlessNodes = axe._cache.get('regionlessNodes');
+if (regionlessNodes) {
+	return !regionlessNodes.includes(virtualNode);
+}
+
 // Create a list of nodeNames that have a landmark as an implicit role
 const implicitLandmarks = landmarkRoles
 	.reduce((arr, role) => arr.concat(aria.implicitNodes(role)), [])
@@ -52,11 +57,18 @@ function findRegionlessElms(virtualNode) {
 			dom.getElementByReference(virtualNode.actualNode, 'href')) ||
 		!dom.isVisible(node, true)
 	) {
+		// Mark each parent node as having region descendant
+		let vNode = virtualNode;
+		while (vNode) {
+			vNode._hasRegionDescendant = true;
+			vNode = vNode.parent;
+		}
+
 		return [];
 
 		// Return the node is a content element
 	} else if (dom.hasContent(node, /* noRecursion: */ true)) {
-		return [node];
+		return [virtualNode];
 
 		// Recursively look at all child elements
 	} else {
@@ -67,7 +79,24 @@ function findRegionlessElms(virtualNode) {
 	}
 }
 
-var regionlessNodes = findRegionlessElms(virtualNode);
-this.relatedNodes(regionlessNodes);
+regionlessNodes = findRegionlessElms(axe._tree[0])
+	// Find first parent marked as having region descendant (or body) and
+	// return the node right before it as the "outer" element
+	.map(vNode => {
+		while (
+			vNode.parent &&
+			!vNode.parent._hasRegionDescendant &&
+			vNode.parent.actualNode !== document.body
+		) {
+			vNode = vNode.parent;
+		}
+
+		return vNode;
+	})
+	// Remove duplicate containers
+	.filter((vNode, index, array) => {
+		return array.indexOf(vNode) === index;
+	});
+axe._cache.set('regionlessNodes', regionlessNodes);
 
-return regionlessNodes.length === 0;
+return !regionlessNodes.includes(virtualNode);
diff --git a/lib/checks/navigation/region.json b/lib/checks/navigation/region.json
index bd3a69b2cc..98b5612cf8 100644
--- a/lib/checks/navigation/region.json
+++ b/lib/checks/navigation/region.json
@@ -1,7 +1,6 @@
 {
 	"id": "region",
 	"evaluate": "region.js",
-	"after": "region-after.js",
 	"metadata": {
 		"impact": "moderate",
 		"messages": {
diff --git a/lib/rules/region.json b/lib/rules/region.json
index e43f17d59f..dea8ed46e5 100644
--- a/lib/rules/region.json
+++ b/lib/rules/region.json
@@ -1,7 +1,6 @@
 {
 	"id": "region",
-	"selector": "html",
-	"pageLevel": true,
+	"selector": "body *",
 	"tags": ["cat.keyboard", "best-practice"],
 	"metadata": {
 		"description": "Ensures all page content is contained by landmarks",
diff --git a/test/checks/navigation/region.js b/test/checks/navigation/region.js
index caf5896f58..6f1b5f7f64 100644
--- a/test/checks/navigation/region.js
+++ b/test/checks/navigation/region.js
@@ -4,6 +4,7 @@ describe('region', function() {
 	var fixture = document.getElementById('fixture');
 	var shadowSupport = axe.testUtils.shadowSupport;
 	var checkSetup = axe.testUtils.checkSetup;
+	var fixtureSetup = axe.testUtils.fixtureSetup;
 
 	var checkContext = new axe.testUtils.MockCheckContext();
 
@@ -12,94 +13,81 @@ describe('region', function() {
 		checkContext.reset();
 	});
 
-	it('should return true when all content is inside the region', function() {
+	it('should return true when content is inside the region', function() {
 		var checkArgs = checkSetup(
-			'<div id="target"><div role="main"><a href="a.html#mainheader">Click Here</a><div><h1 id="mainheader" tabindex="0">Introduction</h1></div></div></div>'
+			'<div role="main"><a id="target" href="a.html#mainheader">Click Here</a><div><h1 id="mainheader" tabindex="0">Introduction</h1></div></div>'
 		);
 
 		assert.isTrue(checks.region.evaluate.apply(checkContext, checkArgs));
-		assert.equal(checkContext._relatedNodes.length, 0);
 	});
 
 	it('should return false when img content is outside the region', function() {
 		var checkArgs = checkSetup(
-			'<div id="target"><img src="data:image/gif;base64,R0lGODlhEAAQAMQAAORHHOVSKudfOulrSOp3WOyDZu6QdvCchPGolfO0o/XBs/fNwfjZ0frl3/zy7////wAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAACH5BAkAABAALAAAAAAQABAAAAVVICSOZGlCQAosJ6mu7fiyZeKqNKToQGDsM8hBADgUXoGAiqhSvp5QAnQKGIgUhwFUYLCVDFCrKUE1lBavAViFIDlTImbKC5Gm2hB0SlBCBMQiB0UjIQA7"><div role="main"><h1 id="mainheader" tabindex="0">Introduction</h1></div></div>'
+			'<img id="target" src="data:image/gif;base64,R0lGODlhEAAQAMQAAORHHOVSKudfOulrSOp3WOyDZu6QdvCchPGolfO0o/XBs/fNwfjZ0frl3/zy7////wAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAACH5BAkAABAALAAAAAAQABAAAAVVICSOZGlCQAosJ6mu7fiyZeKqNKToQGDsM8hBADgUXoGAiqhSvp5QAnQKGIgUhwFUYLCVDFCrKUE1lBavAViFIDlTImbKC5Gm2hB0SlBCBMQiB0UjIQA7"><div role="main"><h1 id="mainheader" tabindex="0">Introduction</h1></div>'
 		);
 
 		assert.isFalse(checks.region.evaluate.apply(checkContext, checkArgs));
-		assert.equal(checkContext._relatedNodes.length, 1);
 	});
 
 	it('should return true when textless text content is outside the region', function() {
 		var checkArgs = checkSetup(
-			'<div id="target"><p></p><div role="main"><h1 id="mainheader" tabindex="0">Introduction</h1></div></div>'
+			'<p id="target"></p><div role="main"><h1 id="mainheader" tabindex="0">Introduction</h1></div>'
 		);
 
 		assert.isTrue(checks.region.evaluate.apply(checkContext, checkArgs));
-		assert.equal(checkContext._relatedNodes.length, 0);
 	});
 
 	it('should return true when wrapper content is outside the region', function() {
 		var checkArgs = checkSetup(
-			'<div id="target"><div><div role="main"><h1 id="mainheader" tabindex="0">Introduction</h1></div></div></div>'
+			'<div id="target"><div role="main"><h1 id="mainheader" tabindex="0">Introduction</h1></div></div>'
 		);
 
 		assert.isTrue(checks.region.evaluate.apply(checkContext, checkArgs));
-		assert.equal(checkContext._relatedNodes.length, 0);
 	});
 
 	it('should return true when invisible content is outside the region', function() {
 		var checkArgs = checkSetup(
-			'<div id="target"><p style="display: none">Click Here</p><div role="main"><h1 id="mainheader" tabindex="0">Introduction</h1></div></div>'
+			'<p id="target" style="display: none">Click Here</p><div role="main"><h1 id="mainheader" tabindex="0">Introduction</h1></div>'
 		);
 
 		assert.isTrue(checks.region.evaluate.apply(checkContext, checkArgs));
-		assert.equal(checkContext._relatedNodes.length, 0);
 	});
 
 	it('should return true when there is a skiplink', function() {
 		var checkArgs = checkSetup(
-			'<div id="target"><a href="#mainheader">Click Here</a><div role="main"><h1 id="mainheader" tabindex="0">Introduction</h1></div></div>'
+			'<a id="target" href="#mainheader">Click Here</a><div role="main"><h1 id="mainheader" tabindex="0">Introduction</h1></div>'
 		);
 
 		assert.isTrue(checks.region.evaluate.apply(checkContext, checkArgs));
-		assert.equal(checkContext._relatedNodes.length, 0);
 	});
 
 	it('should return true when there is an Angular skiplink', function() {
 		var checkArgs = checkSetup(
-			'<div id="target"><a href="/#mainheader">Click Here</a><div role="main"><h1 id="mainheader" tabindex="0">Introduction</h1></div></div>'
+			'<a id="target" href="/#mainheader">Click Here</a><div role="main"><h1 id="mainheader" tabindex="0">Introduction</h1></div>'
 		);
 
 		assert.isTrue(checks.region.evaluate.apply(checkContext, checkArgs));
-		assert.equal(checkContext._relatedNodes.length, 0);
 	});
 
 	it('should return false when there is a non-region element', function() {
 		var checkArgs = checkSetup(
-			'<div id="target"><div>This is random content.</div><div role="main"><h1 id="mainheader">Introduction</h1></div></div>'
+			'<div id="target">This is random content.</div><div role="main"><h1 id="mainheader">Introduction</h1></div>'
 		);
 
 		assert.isFalse(checks.region.evaluate.apply(checkContext, checkArgs));
-		assert.equal(checkContext._relatedNodes.length, 1);
-	});
-
-	it('should return the first item when after is called', function() {
-		assert.equal(checks.region.after([2, 3, 1]), 2);
 	});
 
 	it('should return false when there is a non-skiplink', function() {
 		var checkArgs = checkSetup(
-			'<div id="target"><a href="something.html#mainheader">Click Here</a><div role="main"><h1 id="mainheader">Introduction</h1></div></div>'
+			'<a id="target" href="something.html#mainheader">Click Here</a><div role="main"><h1 id="mainheader">Introduction</h1></div>'
 		);
 
 		assert.isFalse(checks.region.evaluate.apply(checkContext, checkArgs));
-		assert.equal(checkContext._relatedNodes.length, 1);
 	});
 
 	it('should return true if the non-region element is a script', function() {
 		var checkArgs = checkSetup(
-			'<div id="target"><script>axe.run()</script><div role="main">Content</div></div>'
+			'<script id="target">axe.run()</script><div role="main">Content</div>'
 		);
 
 		assert.isTrue(checks.region.evaluate.apply(checkContext, checkArgs));
@@ -107,57 +95,66 @@ describe('region', function() {
 
 	it('should considered aria labelled elements as content', function() {
 		var checkArgs = checkSetup(
-			'<div id="target"><div aria-label="axe-core logo" role="img"></div><div role="main">Content</div></div>'
+			'<div id="target" aria-label="axe-core logo" role="img"></div><div role="main">Content</div>'
 		);
 
 		assert.isFalse(checks.region.evaluate.apply(checkContext, checkArgs));
-		assert.deepEqual(checkContext._relatedNodes, [
-			fixture.querySelector('div[aria-label]')
-		]);
 	});
 
-	it('should allow native landmark elements', function() {
+	it('should allow native header elements', function() {
+		var checkArgs = checkSetup(
+			'<header id="target">branding</header><main>Content </main><aside>stuff</aside><footer>copyright</footer>'
+		);
+
+		assert.isTrue(checks.region.evaluate.apply(checkContext, checkArgs));
+	});
+
+	it('should allow native main elements', function() {
+		var checkArgs = checkSetup(
+			'<header>branding</header><main id="target">Content </main><aside>stuff</aside><footer>copyright</footer>'
+		);
+
+		assert.isTrue(checks.region.evaluate.apply(checkContext, checkArgs));
+	});
+
+	it('should allow native aside elements', function() {
+		var checkArgs = checkSetup(
+			'<header>branding</header><main>Content </main><aside id="target">stuff</aside><footer>copyright</footer>'
+		);
+
+		assert.isTrue(checks.region.evaluate.apply(checkContext, checkArgs));
+	});
+
+	it('should allow native footer elements', function() {
 		var checkArgs = checkSetup(
-			'<div id="target"><header>branding</header><main>Content </main><aside>stuff</aside><footer>copyright</footer></div>'
+			'<header>branding</header><main>Content </main><aside>stuff</aside><footer id="target">copyright</footer>'
 		);
 
 		assert.isTrue(checks.region.evaluate.apply(checkContext, checkArgs));
-		assert.lengthOf(checkContext._relatedNodes, 0);
 	});
 
 	it('ignores native landmark elements with an overwriting role', function() {
 		var checkArgs = checkSetup(
-			'<div id="target"><header role="heading" level="1"></header><main role="none">Content</main></div>'
+			'<main id="target" role="none">Content</main><div role="main">Content</div>'
 		);
 
 		assert.isFalse(checks.region.evaluate.apply(checkContext, checkArgs));
-		assert.lengthOf(checkContext._relatedNodes, 1);
-		assert.deepEqual(checkContext._relatedNodes, [
-			fixture.querySelector('main')
-		]);
 	});
 
 	it('returns false for content outside of form tags with accessible names', function() {
 		var checkArgs = checkSetup(
-			'<div id="target"><p>Text</p><form aria-label="form"></form></div>'
+			'<p id="target">Text</p><form aria-label="form"></form>'
 		);
 
 		assert.isFalse(checks.region.evaluate.apply(checkContext, checkArgs));
-		assert.lengthOf(checkContext._relatedNodes, 1);
-		assert.deepEqual(checkContext._relatedNodes, [fixture.querySelector('p')]);
 	});
 
 	it('ignores unlabeled forms as they are not landmarks', function() {
 		var checkArgs = checkSetup(
-			'<div id="target"><p>Text</p><form><fieldset>foo</fieldset></form></div>'
+			'<form id="target"><fieldset>foo</fieldset></form><div role="main">Content</div>'
 		);
 
 		assert.isFalse(checks.region.evaluate.apply(checkContext, checkArgs));
-		assert.lengthOf(checkContext._relatedNodes, 2);
-		assert.deepEqual(checkContext._relatedNodes, [
-			fixture.querySelector('p'),
-			fixture.querySelector('fieldset')
-		]);
 	});
 
 	it('treats <forms> with aria label as landmarks', function() {
@@ -176,22 +173,18 @@ describe('region', function() {
 
 	it('treats forms without aria label as not a landmarks', function() {
 		var checkArgs = checkSetup(
-			'<form id="target"><p>This is random content.</p></form>'
+			'<form id="target"><p>This is random content.</p></form><div role="main">Content</div>'
 		);
 
 		assert.isFalse(checks.region.evaluate.apply(checkContext, checkArgs));
-		assert.lengthOf(checkContext._relatedNodes, 1);
-		assert.deepEqual(checkContext._relatedNodes, [fixture.querySelector('p')]);
 	});
 
 	it('treats forms with an empty aria label as not a landmarks', function() {
 		var checkArgs = checkSetup(
-			'<form id="target" aria-label=" "><p>This is random content.</p></form>'
+			'<form id="target" aria-label=" "><p>This is random content.</p></form><div role="main">Content</div>'
 		);
 
 		assert.isFalse(checks.region.evaluate.apply(checkContext, checkArgs));
-		assert.lengthOf(checkContext._relatedNodes, 1);
-		assert.deepEqual(checkContext._relatedNodes, [fixture.querySelector('p')]);
 	});
 
 	it('treats forms with non empty titles as landmarks', function() {
@@ -204,12 +197,10 @@ describe('region', function() {
 
 	it('treats forms with empty titles not as landmarks', function() {
 		var checkArgs = checkSetup(
-			'<form id="target" title=""><p>This is random content.</p></form>'
+			'<form id="target" title=""><p>This is random content.</p></form><div role="main">Content</div>'
 		);
 
 		assert.isFalse(checks.region.evaluate.apply(checkContext, checkArgs));
-		assert.lengthOf(checkContext._relatedNodes, 1);
-		assert.deepEqual(checkContext._relatedNodes, [fixture.querySelector('p')]);
 	});
 
 	it('treats ARIA forms with no label or title as landmarks', function() {
@@ -236,7 +227,7 @@ describe('region', function() {
 
 	it('does not allow content in aria-live=off', function() {
 		var checkArgs = checkSetup(
-			'<div aria-live="off" id="target"><p>This is random content.</p></div>'
+			'<div aria-live="off" id="target"><p>This is random content.</p></div><div role="main">Content</div>'
 		);
 		assert.isFalse(checks.region.evaluate.apply(checkContext, checkArgs));
 	});
@@ -284,14 +275,30 @@ describe('region', function() {
 		assert.isTrue(checks.region.evaluate.apply(checkContext, checkArgs));
 	});
 
+	it('returns the outermost element as the error', function() {
+		var checkArgs = checkSetup(
+			'<div id="target"><p>This is random content.</p></div><div role="main"><h1 id="mainheader" tabindex="0">Introduction</h1></div>'
+		);
+
+		assert.isFalse(checks.region.evaluate.apply(checkContext, checkArgs));
+	});
+
 	(shadowSupport.v1 ? it : xit)('should test Shadow tree content', function() {
 		var div = document.createElement('div');
 		var shadow = div.attachShadow({ mode: 'open' });
 		shadow.innerHTML = 'Some text';
-		var checkArgs = checkSetup(div);
-
-		assert.isFalse(checks.region.evaluate.apply(checkContext, checkArgs));
-		assert.deepEqual(checkContext._relatedNodes, [div]);
+		fixtureSetup(div);
+		var virutalNode = axe._tree[0];
+
+		// fixture is the outermost element
+		assert.isFalse(
+			checks.region.evaluate.call(
+				checkContext,
+				virutalNode.actualNode,
+				null,
+				virutalNode
+			)
+		);
 	});
 
 	(shadowSupport.v1 ? it : xit)('should test slotted content', function() {
@@ -302,21 +309,28 @@ describe('region', function() {
 		var checkArgs = checkSetup(div);
 
 		assert.isTrue(checks.region.evaluate.apply(checkContext, checkArgs));
-		assert.lengthOf(checkContext._relatedNodes, 0);
 	});
 
 	(shadowSupport.v1 ? it : xit)(
 		'should ignore skiplink targets inside shadow trees',
 		function() {
 			var div = document.createElement('div');
-			div.innerHTML = '<a href="#foo">skiplink</a><div>Content</div>';
+			div.innerHTML =
+				'<a id="target" href="#foo">skiplink</a><div>Content</div>';
 
 			var shadow = div.querySelector('div').attachShadow({ mode: 'open' });
 			shadow.innerHTML = '<div role="main" id=#foo"><slot></slot></div>';
-			var checkArgs = checkSetup(div);
-
-			assert.isFalse(checks.region.evaluate.apply(checkContext, checkArgs));
-			assert.deepEqual(checkContext._relatedNodes, [div.querySelector('a')]);
+			fixtureSetup(div);
+			var virutalNode = axe.utils.getNodeFromTree(div.querySelector('#target'));
+
+			assert.isFalse(
+				checks.region.evaluate.call(
+					checkContext,
+					virutalNode.actualNode,
+					null,
+					virutalNode
+				)
+			);
 		}
 	);
 
diff --git a/test/integration/full/region/region-fail.js b/test/integration/full/region/region-fail.js
index 20f2c4723d..21e6871159 100644
--- a/test/integration/full/region/region-fail.js
+++ b/test/integration/full/region/region-fail.js
@@ -17,22 +17,8 @@ describe('region fail test', function() {
 			assert.lengthOf(results.violations[0].nodes, 1);
 		});
 
-		it('should find html', function() {
-			assert.deepEqual(results.violations[0].nodes[0].target, ['html']);
-		});
-
-		it('should have all text content as related nodes', function() {
-			var wrapper = document.querySelector('#wrapper');
-			assert.equal(
-				results.violations[0].nodes[0].any[0].relatedNodes.length,
-				wrapper.querySelectorAll('h1, li, p, a').length
-			);
-		});
-	});
-
-	describe('passes', function() {
-		it('should find none', function() {
-			assert.lengthOf(results.passes, 0);
+		it('should find wrapper', function() {
+			assert.deepEqual(results.violations[0].nodes[0].target, ['#wrapper']);
 		});
 	});
 });
diff --git a/test/integration/full/region/region-pass.js b/test/integration/full/region/region-pass.js
index b1a1325fa3..a6406bb1f5 100644
--- a/test/integration/full/region/region-pass.js
+++ b/test/integration/full/region/region-pass.js
@@ -13,12 +13,10 @@ describe('region pass test', function() {
 	});
 
 	describe('passes', function() {
-		it('should find one', function() {
-			assert.lengthOf(results.passes[0].nodes, 1);
-		});
-
-		it('should find html', function() {
-			assert.deepEqual(results.passes[0].nodes[0].target, ['html']);
+		it('should pass nodes', function() {
+			// it seems CircleCI and localhost have different number of DOM nodes,
+			// so as long as everything passes and nothing fails, the rule is working
+			assert.isTrue(results.passes[0].nodes.length > 0);
 		});
 	});